Hemoglobin plays a critical role in maintaining blood pH within a narrow range, acting as an effective buffer system. Blood pH is tightly regulated around 7.35–7.45, and even small deviations can impair cellular functions. Its buffering capacity is due to its ability to bind to hydrogen ions (H⁺) and carbon dioxide (CO₂), both of which … Read more
The Two-Step Tuberculosis (TB) Skin Test (also known as the Mantoux test) is a diagnostic method used to detect latent tuberculosis infection (LTBI). It is often required for healthcare workers, long-term care facility residents, and others at high risk of TB exposure. The two-step process is performed to distinguish a boosted reaction from a new … Read more
The Endospore Test (or Spore Staining) is a specialized microbiological technique used to detect and visualize bacterial endospores, which are highly resistant structures produced by some bacteria (e.g., Bacillus and Clostridium species). These endospores protect bacteria from harsh conditions. The most common method for detecting endospores is the Schaeffer-Fulton Method. Schaeffer-Fulton Endospore Staining Procedure Materials … Read more
Tet DNA demethylation refers to the process by which methyl groups are removed from cytosines in DNA, primarily through the action of TET (Ten-Eleven Translocation) enzymes. These enzymes play a key role in epigenetic regulation by catalyzing the oxidation of 5-methylcytosine (5mC), an important DNA modification, leading to DNA demethylation. Overview of TET Enzymes There … Read more
Hemoglobin is a vital protein in red blood cells responsible for transporting oxygen from the lungs to tissues and carrying carbon dioxide back to the lungs for exhalation. While most people are familiar with adult hemoglobin (HbA), the human body also produces a distinct form called fetal hemoglobin (HbF) during fetal development. Here’s the key … Read more
The Sulphur Reduction Test is a microbiological test used to detect the ability of certain bacteria to reduce sulfur-containing compounds to hydrogen sulfide (H₂S). This test is typically performed using media such as Triple Sugar Iron (TSI) agar or SIM (Sulfide, Indole, Motility) medium. The SRT test is primarily used for: Principle Some bacteria can … Read more
Influenza, commonly known as the flu, is caused by viruses that can infect the respiratory system and leading to a range of various symptoms. There are several types of flu viruses, but Influenza A and B are the most common strains that cause seasonal flu epidemics. Common Symptoms of Influenza A and B The symptoms … Read more
Osmosis and diffusion are two fundamental processes by which molecules move and substances are transported. While they may seem similar at first glance, they are distinct in their mechanisms, purposes, and the types of molecules they involve. Here is the key differences between osmosis and diffusion, shedding light on their importance in both natural and … Read more
Life is built upon a foundation of nucleic acids DNA and RNA . These molecules are essential for the storage, transmission, and expression of genetic information in living organisms. While DNA and RNA share some similarities but they differ significantly in their structure, functions, and location. Here is the top five differences between RNA and … Read more
The structure of sugars plays a crucial role in determining whether they are reducing or non-reducing. The key difference lies in whether the sugar has a free aldehyde or ketone group (which makes it a reducing sugar) or whether the carbonyl group is involved in a glycosidic bond, making it non-reducing. Reducing Sugar Structure A … Read more